COMMENTARY TO BETRAYAL IN THE CITY (BY FRANCIS IMBUGA)

 Compiled by:
 Lawrence Sunday Ogwang

Characters in the Play         

v  Characters representing the ruling system

a)      Rulers

Ø  Boss – Head of State of Kafira

Ø  Mulili  -The eyes and the ears of Boss

b)     Agents of the ruling system

Ø  Askari – Prison warder

Ø Nicodemo – Government Official

Ø  Kabito – Government Official

Ø  Tumbo – Government Official

Ø  Guards, Palace staff

v  Characters representing the masses or the common people

a)      The silent helpless people

Ø  Doga – an old man

Ø  Nina – his wife

Ø  Regina – Mosese`s sister, also Wendo’s Girlfriend

b)     The enlightened activists

1. Jusper Wendo – son to Doga and Nina
2. Jere – Soldier, later prisoner
3. Mosese – Ex-lecturer, now prisoner
4. Adika- (Absentee character) son to Doga and Nina, brother to Jasper.

Background and settings of the Play: Betrayal in the City

Betrayal in the city is a play written by Francis Imbuga. Francis Imbuga was born in western Kenya in 1947. His book Betrayal in the city was written and published in 1976. The play is an inclusive, thought-provoking examination of the problems of independence and freedom in post-colonial African states where a sizable number of people feel that their future is blank and bleak. In the words of Mosese, one of the characters, “It was better while we waited. Now we have nothing to look forward to. We have killed our past and are busy killing our future…” (pg. 28).

It must therefore be understood that the text Betrayal in the City is a political play. The play talks about military regimes that were common on the African continent after independence. Many of such regimes were later overthrown by coup de tats. Francis Imbuga’s major concern is political betrayal and he handles this at two different levels: at a personal and government/political levels.

“Betrayal in the City” is really a timely book which meets all the happenings. Believe it or not, the book has more than reality of nearly all the African states, where the ‘boss’ is no longer a fictitious but real personalities, and resources if truth be told flowing exactly as described in the book. Alot of blackmailing, scapegoat, over propaganda, blood shade of the innocent…  

It’s so sad to make this kind of observation, but the reality is that in Africa, most leaders behave like Boss. They have no regard for others but themselves and will stop at nothing in their quest to plunder/steal state resources even if it means drinking the innocent blood. The worst of the lot are the sycophants/flatterers who, blindly, sing their praises while fattening their pockets with plundered/stolen taxes like Mulili.

Ultimately, I may be wrong here but I think it holds water to say that it seems in Africa, the more things seem to change; the more they remain the same. That is why I describe ‘Betrayal in the City’ as ‘timeless’ – especially, as far as Africa is concerned. This state of affairs in Africa flooded the mind of Francis Imbuga and the consequential effect is the book Betrayal in the City.

General summary of the Play.

The play Betrayal in the City is set in an imaginary/ illusory African country named Kafira in the post independence era. During this period, Africans end up being disappointed when the African leaders they hope to bring change become perpetrators of corruption, dictatorship, nepotism and assassinations.

 Kafira is an Independent country headed by Boss. The country is experiencing political upheavals that are a result of an oppressive dictatorial government. Social evils such as corruption, nepotism, arbitrary arrests and assassinations have become common in Kafira.

A demonstration is organized by concerned university students to protest against the influx of expatriate specialists/workers. This leads to the death of a student, Adika, who is shot by a police officer –Chagaga.

It is after Adika’s funeral that Mosese, a lecturer is arrested for criticizing the government’s actions. After the funeral, Jusper, Adika’s brother, kills Chagaga in revenge and throws his body into a river. Jusper is later arrested for the offence after he confessed the crime.

Two soldiers, Jere and Mulili are sent to Adika’s home to prevent his parents from holding the customary shaving ceremony. On arrival they find Nina and Doga, Adika’s parents, preparing for the shaving ceremony.

Confronted by the situation, Jere decides to allow Nina and Doga to continue with the ceremony but Mulili firmly disagrees. The two soldiers quarrel leading to Jere’s arrest. Because of an impending visit of a foreign head of state, Boss decides to have a play staged by prisoners as part of the guest’s entertainment. Mosese and Jere are therefore approached and requested to take part in the play. Boss promises to set free 600 prisoners if the project is successful.

Mr. Tumbo, Boss’ right hand man, approaches Jusper asking him to write a play for the occasion. He promises Jusper good payment in return. Jusper agrees to write a play which is later acted by Jere and Mosese.

A prisoner falls ill before the rehearsals and therefore Boss offers to step in. Later he orders his guards to give him their guns to be used as props after realizing that the props weren’t ready. Using the guns, the actors challenge Boss and his cronies in a cleverly crafted coup. Jusper shoots Mulili in revenge.

The play ends as it begins with Nina and Doga's ghosts appearing and mourning their son
.

COMPLETE PLOT SUMMARY AND ANALYSIS

ACT ONE, SCENE ONE: The death of Adika

.It is set at Adika's grave. Adika, who now lies in the grave we are told was shot by a police officer during a university demonstration. Chagaga, the sub-chief's brother was implicated in this murder.

Doga and Nina are visiting their son’s grave in the morning to prepare for the shaving ceremony. To their surprise, the killers of their son have followed him to the grave as if to kill him a second time. In some cultures in Kenya, it is believed if you burn someone’s grave at night and you were the killer, the spirit of the deceased will never trail. In this concept, it was believed that the killer’s had come to ‘kill’ the spirit.

Jusper, their son had been given the responsibility to look after his brother’s grave before the killer’s came to do injustice to it. On this occasion, he was missing. Jusper is believed to be disturbed because of his mannerisms.

Jasper confesses having killed a man. His parents do not believe his statements because to them, he is sick, (mad). His mother Nina, advises him to go and change his clothes. In order to get rid of him, they tell him to go and confess to the killing he claims.

Not known to Doga and Nina, Jusper killed the man who tried to desecrate his brother’s grave. The man, as we learn from Jere, was Chagaga, the sub-chief’s brother.

Meanwhile, the two soldiers: Jere and Mulili have come to stop the scheduled hair shaving ceremony, ‘in the interest of peace’ pg9, which peace never existed. Among some communities, hair shaving ceremony serves as a right to show final respect to the dead. It is done one week after the burial. The two soldiers argue over whether to allow the ceremony to go on. Jere being from that village understands the importance of a shaving ceremony as a traditional ritual and therefore he wants to let the old couple proceed with it. Mulili differs with him because he comes from a different tribe and now seems unconcerned with the intensity of the ritual. Above all, he has been promised a large chunk of land by Boss in return for his loyalty.

When Nina threatens to strip naked-a mortal curse among the people of this community. Mulili who cares less says, “How many naked bodies I have seen and I am still Mulili with my two eyes…..”pg9.

Jere goes against the Boss’s orders and allows the two poor fellows to do the final ritual for their son. It is very important to note that, the act has so much cultural practices that still linger in some communities. We can see how the character of Jere shows respect to the aged and the dismissive nature of Mulili. We also learn how condolences continue to trickle in, the evidence is the wooden bowl on the grave. Another thing is, it is an abomination to carry out hair shaving ritual if there is doubt that, something had happened to the buried corpse. Nina says, “It will be wrong for us to sit on this evil. We cannot outwit the ancestors.”pg3.

Significant events in Act I, scene I

1. Nina and Doga visit their late son, Adika’s grave in preparation of the ‘hair shaving’ ceremony.
2. Their other son, Jusper Wendo, who is demented, comes shouting claiming that he had killed someone. We later learn that someone was Chagaga.
3. Jere and Mulili are sent to come and stop the hair shaving ceremony. Jere seems to be understanding while Mulili is condescending/arrogant.

Questions from Act I, scene I

1. Explain MULILI’s character.
2. In your own opinion, do you think the authority was justified to block the ‘hair shaving ceremony’? Why do you think so?
3. Relate what happens in act one to events that unfold in leadership in third world countries.

Observations made from Act I, scene I

1. This ACT espouses/takes up the confusion surrounding African countries as they try to come to terms with the new leadership styles inherited from their colonial masters. In reality, the current leadership exhibited in the first act is, master slave kind of leadership which limits people’s rights in the guise of maintaining security. The banning of the hair shaving ceremony is a tactical maneuver by those in authority to cover up on their failings by blaming innocent citizens who, with regard to tradition, have the right to assembly.
2. Patronage/support and nepotism/favoritism prevails in Mulili innuendo/allusion. He carries his orders with the hope that, BOSS, his cousin, will give him a land and grade cows.

ACT ONE, SCENE TWO: Detention of Jere and his meeting with Mosese

The scene is set in a prison cell Jere is detained for allowing the head shaving ceremony to go on. In the cell he is taken into, he meets Mosese, a political prisoner. We understand that Jere was in another cell but he beat up one of the prisoners ruthlessly forcing the Askari to change him to another cell.

Mosese is a university lecturer. He was arrested for being in possession of opium as official evidence show. He says, he was arrested for speaking up his mind during the burial of one of his brave students who was killed.

It is from Mosese and the Askari that we learn the death of Doga and Nina. They leave Jusper an orphan. Mosese likes Jusper who was in the same prison for confessing the killing of Chagaga but he is to be released.

Jere proves to be hot headed and answers the Askari without fear. We learn a lot from the Askari. He mentions a rehabilitation centre for criminals who are hard core like Jere. He tells Jere that he will be reformed in due course. Jere gives a rather sarcastic answer.

It is Mosese who raises the lid on the question of independence. Using a biblical Allusion he says, “ That is why I don’t believe in such crap as the last shall be the first, and blessed are the poor for they shall inherit the Kingdom of heaven! For years we waited for the kingdom, then they said it had come……… It was all an illusion.pg27-28. From this we draw that the independence Africa celebrated was just an independence where black foreigners/foreign puppets masquerading as liberators sold Africa to the highest bidder.

They brought in vocabularies like investors and donors who continued milking Africa from its drying udder. Mosese says, “It was better while we waited. Now we have nothing to look forward to. We have killed our past and are busy killing the future” Pg 28. Mosese sees a future of despair in the hands of black colonialist and little to do to help.

At the suggestion of acting the head of state who is to visit Kafira, Mosese declines. His refusal is reminiscent of many intellectuals who decline to take up opportunities that could mark the change to the better. Jere prevails upon him to take up chance because it will do good to some families who might get to see their loved ones if some of the prisoners are released as promised by Boss. The only thing demanded is, Mosese should act.

In his sleep, MOSESE has fits of Nightmares which shows how disturbed he is. JERE says: “When the madness of an entire nation disturbs a solitary mind, it is not enough to say the man is mad.” Pg31.

Significant events in Act I, scene II

1. It is no surprise that JERE is under detention. Given his outspokenness and going against BOSS’s orders we anticipated his detention.
2. In prison JERE

Questions from Act I, scene II

1. What are some of the problems faced by police officials executing their work?
2. Do you think police officials are doing justice in detaining people without proper investigation?
3. Explain how those in power misuse power to subjugate/subdue citizens’ protests.

Observations made from Act I scene II

1. Police officials are supposed to serve the citizenry. In this Act we see how Jere is detained for believing in serving the masses. The Askari who detains him feels that he is doing the right thing by serving the masses. In most governments, security forces serve the privileged; they enjoy maximum security, protected as they steal from the public and use the police force to suppress mass protests on abuse on human rights.
2. Jere, who sees reason in standing by Nina and Doga, learns that the arm of the law is to suppress the majority to who are on the right and support the minority who are on the wrong.
3. MOSESE has learned survival tactics in jail. As a political prisoner, he has to survive by suppressing the expression of his political thought.

ACT ONE, SCENE THREE: Jusper visits Regina his girlfriend

The scene is set in Regina's small room. Regina is Mosese's sister and Jusper's girlfriend. Jusper has visited. He, like all university students, is in a red gown to show that they are protesting against the government. He has been released from custody after his parents were murdered by Mulili. He is so full of himself and his outspokenness- a character common to university students. Regina calm and fearful of the authority warns him against his loud mouthing every antagonistic statement to the government of Kafira.

Regina represents a class of people who know that something is wrong but clearly would not stand out to fight knowing very well that they won’t win. Using MAX ERHMAN’S poem ‘DESIDERATA’ Regina cautions her boyfriend to ‘go placidly amid the noise and haste and remember what peace there may be in silence’pg35.

It is quite an irony to be silent when the storm is brewing around you, especially given the fact that Regina’s brother is languishing in prison. Jusper reminds Regina that Mosese and Jere are heroes to which Regina still quoting Desiderata says, ‘everywhere the world is full of heroism’pg35.

Regina reaches out to Tumbo who works for the Government of Kafira to seek for her brother’s release. Evidently, freedom in this society is predominantly underhand. It is a freedom where one seeks favours from those in authority. Mosese is against these underhand methods of seeking liberation, he favours just means but as we learned from the first scene, Jusper had said that, Justice was absent.

Tumbo comes in, like any government official, he exudes authority and overconfidence. Jusper engages him before he calls Regina who was from the kitchen. A discussion of names erupts and Tumbo slightly agrees that, things in Kafira are not that good.

Jusper is sent for drinks. He declines using Tumbo’s jaguar and prefers to walk, a rather queer character given that young people love vehicles so much. Jusper displays that he is independent and does not expect favour and privileges from the privileged class, though he accepts a drink.

Tumbo gives Jusper the opportunity of writing a play to be performed during the visit of a certain head of state. Things are done offhandedly, instead of a competition, Tumbo declares Jusper a winner of the non-existent competition. Regina is wary of the undertaking but they dismiss her with Jusper behaving rather submissive and satirical.

On youth and opportunities given to them by the government Jusper says, “The fruits of independence. We get them second hand.” Pg50.

This act emphasizes on the issues affecting incapacitated government who heavily relies on patronages in appointments. We also learn that Mulili, the soldier we met in act one is the advisor to the boss and the two are related. It such a sad reality that, Kafira heavily relies on foreign advisors and inexperienced leaders like Tumbo and Mulili.

Significant events in Act I, scene III

1. Regina cautions Jusper on his overly critical stance against the government of Kafira.
2. Tumbo a government official offers Jusper the responsibility of writing a play for the visiting head of state.
3. Regina is against the idea but as a woman, she has no authority. She submits to the men.

Questions from Act I, scene III

1. What is your opinion on government in Kenya and what Imbuga highlights in Betrayal in the City.
2. Do you think it was okay for Jusper to accept Tumbo’s appointment?

Observations made from Act I, scene III

1. The scene represents how society accepts dictatorships. Regina is not ready to oppose and to fight the draconian Boss leadership for fear of her own personal security. She fears the powers that be and is willing to follow the oppressive leadership as long as she is free- a doubtful situation given that people suffers more than when incarcerated.
2. Tumbo represents a class of institutional leaders in government who take lightly their responsibilities and squander government resources in the guise of working for the nation. He is above the law and his word is final.

ACT TWO, SCENE ONE: Committee plans state visit

The scene is set in a conference room where the entertainment committee is set to meet. Kabito is the first to arrive followed by Nicodemo. Kabito is angered with the fact that Mulili has been included on the committee. On the other hand, Nicodemo does not want Mosese to be among those acting for the state visitor. Nicodemo was the one who planted the drugs (opium) on Mosese. Mulili convinced his cousin to twist the arm of the university administration to rescind the contract given to Kabito.

Instead of discussing the issues of the visit, the committee is more interested in the perks they have to take home. The meeting is prematurely adjourned because a scuffle breaks between Kabito and Mulili.

An observation made from the meeting is that, one of the decisions arrived at is that, children should be allowed to line up along Airport Road to welcome the visitor!

Significant events in Act II, scene I

1. Kabito shares his frustration with Nicodemo about a milk delivery tender to university that is given to Mulili minutes after he had won it.
2. Nicodemo does not want prisoners to be used in a play because of his involvement in the detention of Mosese.
3. The committee comes up with ludicrous proposals on the entertainment of the visiting head of state.
4. MULILI and KABITO differ and the meeting is adjourned.

Questions from Act II, scene I

1. Do you think it is okay to involve pupils in a state visit?
2. What is the responsibility of government officials according to your understanding?
3. Relate your understanding of government official’s role with what happens in the scene.

Observations made from Act II, scene I

1. The act exposes conflict of interest in Government officials. Kabito and Mulili are both government officials but it is quite amazing to realize that both have interests in public university tenders. This raises a question of integrity in delivery of public duty.
2. Secondly, instead of the committee looking at better ways on how to entertain state visitor, they are deliberating on how to increase the gains from per diem.
3. Finally, we see high levels of incompetence in the way issues are handled by the four committee members and how they little understand government policy.

ACT II, SCENE II: Mulili meets Boss to falsely accuse Kabito

This scene is set at Boss' palace. Boss does not like the grey hair and is engaged pulling out grey hairs -an indicator that he may be the kind of leader who wants to rule for life. Meanwhile
Mulili has visited him after the quarrel with Kabito. He lies to Boss that Kabito is slandering his name at the committee meeting saying that Boss is spoiling Kafira's economy by grabbing public property and hiding wealth in foreign banks.  Among other accusations, to add insult to injury, Kabito is accused of saying that Boss wanted Regina by force.

Infuriated, Boss orders Mulili to kill Kabito and make it look like an accident. Thus, Mulili gets his revenge against Kabito.

Significant events in Act II, scene II

1. Mulili reports Kabito to Boss; in fact he lies about Kabito, an act of betrayal.

Questions from Act II, scene II

1. Do you think it is okay for government officials to own businesses that compete for government tenders?

Observations made from Act II, scene II

1. The chapter explores the role of right hand people in dictatorships; they compromise the trust given to them by gaining more power and influence.

ACT II, SCENE III: The death of Kabito

It takes place in the same room the committee had met in earlier.
Jusper has come to inform Tumbo that he is no longer interested in writing the play for the event. He says it is because Regina was almost raped by Boss when she went to plead for Mosese's release. The conversation reveals that Boss locked up his wife for complaining about the incident.

Tumbo convinces him to stay on. He apologizes profusely to Jusper given that he was the one who arranged for Regina to meet Boss.

Jusper decides now to stay on but stand for the truth. Tumbo warns him that the truth might have him killed just like what had happened to Kabito.

Mulili comes through with the news which everyone knows that Kabito was allegedly involved in a road accident after having drunk too many. No one questions him for despite the growing doubt that Mulili might have had a hand in the death given the earlier confrontation.

Mulili says that Boss will name the very road Kabito was involved in an accident Kabito road. The meeting is adjourned till another day but Nicodemo would like to know whether the day will be counted.

One question is, DO the assassinations that happen in Africa have such misguided priorities that is, to hide the secret?

Significant events in Act II, scene III

1. Jusper threatens to give up the writing of the play after Boss attempted to rape Regina.
2. News about Kabitos` death in an accident is broken by Mulili.
3. Nicodemo’s is exposed when he asks whether the day will be counted despite having not worked

Questions from Act II, scene III

1. Do you think Kabito was involved in a road accident?
2. What is the impact of silencing dissents/dispute in Africa’s political development?

Observations made from Act II, scene III

1. The murder of Kabito is consistent with the death of Tom Mboya in 1969 whose name was given to a street where he died and Ronald Ngala who died in a road accident. Most recently, it speaks about the death of Fr. John Anthony Kaiser and Mellitus Mugabe Were. Just like Kabitos death, the murders have remained unsolved.
2. Regina’s predicament speaks on how leaders use their position to humiliate women and treat them as tools of sex.

ACT II, SCENE IV: Betrayal in The City

This is set in Boss' palace where the prisoners are rehearsing the play to be staged for the foreign head

of state. It is the final preparations of the play. Tumbo, who apparently has not read through the script, is engaged in making the final rehearsal memorable. In the ensuing confusion, Boss finds them stranded.

There is some kind of excitement in the air as Jusper explains the play to Boss. Boss asks keen questions which as observed Jusper answers with an air of confidence and sarcasm. The reader or audience can tell that Boss is being taken for a ride but he has no clue.

One of the actors, who was to act the chief of staff, has fallen ill and the doctor has recommended bed rest. The props, especially the guns are not yet ready for the carpenter has not delivered them.

Boss allows them to use real guns. Mosese and Jere start reciting their lines, as Boss, who plays in the role of the chief of staff follows the script. The argument between Mosese and Jere is about the sizes of .32 automatic and .28 guns.

The two soldiers, unable to agree with each other go to ask the Chief Of Staff. The Chief Of Staff allows them to show him the two guns from the heap of guns below. Jusper cannot believe they managed to pull it up as Jere and Mosese pick up the guns excitedly. Everything is so quick that no one realizes what is going on until when the two prisoners have surrounded Boss.

Apparently Jusper and the prisoners had crafted a coup into the play. Sensing danger, Mulili denies any relation with Boss calling him a "distant cousin". He further claims that Boss should be killed because he spoilt Kafira's economy, orchestrated/planned the killing of Kabito.

Boss is angered by this act of betrayal so he asks Jere to kill him. However Jere tells him they have no reason to kill him because Kafira needs everybody including Boss. Jusper takes the gun and kills Mulili. The play ends as it begins with Nina and Doga's ghosts appearing and mourning their son.

Significant events in Act II, scene IV

1. The preparations of the play are underway; Jusper and Tumbo are involved in the arrangements of the play.
2. Boss offers to play as the Chief Of Staff when one of the actors falls sick.
3. Props of the play are not yet ready and the actors are allowed to use real guns.
4. Mosese and Jere are acting as Army officers who do not know the difference between .32 and .28 automatic and therefore ask the Chief of Staff.
5. When the Chief Of Staff allows them to choose from the guns, they successfully orchestrate a coup where Mulili is killed.

Questions from Act II, scene IV

1. Compare the laxity of leaders like TUMBO in Uganda today and the impact of their ignorance in the problems that affect society.
2. Discuss the effects of coups in Africa.

Observations made from Act II, scene IV

Scene four outlines the biggest dilemma facing Africa. In a nutshell Mzee Kenyatta one time outlined the problems of Africa as, ignorance, disease and poverty. Key among these problems is Ignorance as shown by Imbuga, in the play, the success of the coup organized by Jusper is attributed to Tumbo’s ignorance. Tumbo on the other hand blames Boss for appointing him on the wrong job.

1.       It is important to note that ignorance mentioned in the play, borders on political patronage and poor appointments on the side of leaders who reward sycophancy while paying lip service to professionalism.

CHARACTERS AND CHARACTERIZATION IN THE PLAY BETRAYAL IN THE CITY

Adika

Absentee character: Adika is the absentee character for without his death, there would be no play. We learn that he was a university student leader among the peers.

A reckless ring leader: To Regina, Tumbo and Boss, he was just a reckless ring leader who had lost his life for nothing.

He was a martyr: Meanwhile, to Jusper, Mosese and Jere, he was a martyr who had died for his country’s progress. To them, he was not only a student leader of great courage but also an individual with a strong will which is revealed by the manner in which his death haunts the nation and drives his brother on until there is a final atonement as he says “Adika won’t give me peace” Pg.  His death as in life is a motivating force behind his brother, Jusper.

The eyes the ears: Even to his peasant parents, he was “the eyes and ears” without which they are left deaf, blinded and in darkness.

A symbol of great promise: Adika is the symbol of great promise nipped in the bud and his death is presented not only as a loss to his family but to Kafira as a whole.

A symbol of youth and future leadership: He is also a symbol of youth and future leadership sacrificed by a ruthless, unthinking regime that imagines a threat where none exist.

Jusper

Son /student/ brother/ boyfriend: Jusper is the son of Nina and Doga, a university student, brother to the Late Adika and the boyfriend to Regina.

A writer: He is also the playwright to the play within the play that brings down Boss’s regime. (Betrayal in the city)

Fearless: He kills chagaga and Mulili. After killing Chagaga he easily confesses the crime leading to his beating by an angry mob.

Violent: He is very violent that his reaction leads to the murder of Chagaga and Mulili

Vengeful: We can also conclude that he killed both Mulili and Chagaga to revenge the death of his family as he says in his words “I will get my revenge some day, even if it means going it alone” (pg. 33).  Jusper, after killing Mulili, he says that he did it for Kafira.

Honest: He also hands back the remaining change to Tumbo when he had brought the drinks.

Clever/witty: He easily accepts the role of writing a play to be performed to the visiting head of state. He notices the weakness in tumbo and manipulates the play to his liking and advantage.

Conniving/conspiratorial: Using Mosese and Jere, the trio plans to oust Boss out of power. The scheme works perfectly and they manage to hold Boss hostage. Similarly, he pretends to be so damaged that the police let him free, in so doing, he has perfect political ground to spread radical ideas despite being a murder suspect.

Simple/ideological/independent-minded: He refuses to take Tumbo’s jaguar and opts to walk when he is sent for drinks. In so doing, he shows that he is independent minded and accepts no favors to luxury but will work hard to get the luxury he so desires.

Creative/satirical: He says that his works are not for Kafira because he exposes the truth to light that’s why publishers are not too willing to accept them for publication. He also accepts to draft the play to be used in the entertainment of the state visitor. Furthermore, his creativity is used to bring about a revolution.

Revolutionary/Practical: Jusper is a creative student who is willing to use both fiction and action to bring about a revolution. He works together with Mosese and Jere to bring about change. However many will argue that the creative mind should take a middle ground.

Realistic/humorous: He brings reality to life by comparing the non-existent justice to Jupiter. In a comical twist we laugh at the reality that justice and Jupiter are nonexistent.

Friendly/social: He easily makes friends with Tumbo while Regina was away. He also establishes a rapport with Jere and Mosese and in cohorts with each other, they orchestrate/organize a coup.

Regina

She is mosses’ sister, Jasper’s girlfriend and Mr. Tambo’s tenant.

She represents the helpless people in Kafira. In her attempt to save Mosese, she falls a victim of the rotten system in Kafira. Boss tries to rape her and she only saves herself by jumping ten feet through a window.

She is a practical/pragmatic woman who has chosen to let go of everything and let life go on. She realized that there is no amount of resistance that can change things in Kafira; the only way to survive is to move with the system to avoid being in trouble. This is being realistic though one could mistake it for cowardice.

She is an intelligent woman. She cleverly treats Jusper as an insignificant character so that Tumbo does not get to realize that the two are actually lovers. She does it so well that Tumbo suspects nothing at all.

Mulili
Military official: Mulili is a high ranking military and government official. His relation to Boss made him get this high position despite his illiteracy. He exploits his closeness to Boss for his selfish gain by being loyal and Boss’ spy. Mulili is a major criminal in the plain.

Illiterate: Mulili is uneducated and ill-mannered. The way he reasons out things in a childish way betrays the supposed intelligence that he claims to have. Above all, his knowledge of English is rudimentary and that is why his statements are full of grammatical errors that leave the reader with no option but to laugh and pity him.

Cruel and brutal:  Mulili is responsible for the death of Kabito, Nina and Doga. He is also keen to enforce Boss’ orders to the letter, however brutal. He is a sadist who shows a morbid/melancholic satisfaction in the shading of blood as the scenes of Kabito and the old couple’s death show.

Unsympathetic: His character is contrasted with Jere’s when they are deployed in the village to prevent the shaving ceremony from going on. While Jere is overcome by pity on seeing Nina and Doga mourning their son, Mulili is unshaken and he insists that the ceremony must be put off. After quarrelling with Kabito, Mulili plans his murder and makes it look like an accident.

He is vengeful: Whenever Mulili disagrees with someone, the person faces his wrath one way or the other. When he quarrels with Jere over Adika’s shaving ceremony, Mulili instigates Jere’s arrest right after it. Kabito meets his untimely end after crossing Mulili’s path. Nina and Doga, the old couple, are also killed by Mulili.

He is a traitor: Mulili is only loyal to any cause as long as he has individual gains to make from the cause. He is loyal to Boss when he has power because he is corruptly awarded public land and tenders. He does not care about other citizens of Kafira, the likes of Nina and Doga, who are oppressed by Boss’ regime. When Mosese and his team overthrow Boss, Mulili conveniently denies his relation to Boss calling him “a distant cousin.” Using his idiom correctly, he is a real snake in the green grass.

Corrupt: Mr. Mulili is a very corrupt, selfish and a corrupted man. He crookedly snatched the milk tender supply to the university that was originally given to Kabito. He thrives not because of any superior intelligence but because of his corrupt ways. He is corrupted by excess power which Boss has allowed him to have.

Opportunist: Mr. Mulili takes advantage of his relation to Boss and uses it for his egoistic satisfaction. He refers to Boss every time he wants to achieve something. It is even from Mulili`s own mouth that got to know that he is Boss` cousin and this seems to give him greet ticket for everything he wants.

Humorous: His speech is a source of humor for the audience. Hearing Mulili talk, you cannot help but laugh. This serves to relieve the tension in the course of the play.

Role of Mulili in the development of the play
Mulili provides an example of selfish people who betray other citizens for material gain from dictatorial regime.

Mulili also plays a big role in the development of such themes as corruption, nepotism and bad governance.

As a government adviser, Mulili has been used to satirize/ridicule African leaders who rely on ignorant people for advice.

Mosese wa Tonga
senior lecturer:  He is a senior university lecturer and brother to Regina. . Mosese wa Tonga means remember the past. He was previously called Nicodemus but he dropped the name after he was framed by Nicodemo to go to prison. In the large part of the play Mosese is a political detainee in prison because of a speech he made at Adika’s funeral.

Mosese is courageous: He had the courage to criticize the government during Adika’s funeral knowing very well that the government would come after him. Just a day after the funeral he was framed and arrested.

He is cynical/ pessimistic: Mosese is seen to be hopeless about any change being realized in Kafira. He says, “During the speeches at Adika’s funeral, I learned the bitter truth. Kafira wasn’t going to change after all”. It is therefore evident that Mosese has given up hope on Kafira. He advises Jusper to stop agitating against the government for this reason. At first he does not want to participate in the play.

Disillusioned and disappointed: Relatedly, Mosese can be described as a disillusioned man. Recent happenings in Kafira h contributed to this. According to him, Kafiran post independence leadership has completely destroyed the hopes and aspirations of the people of Kafira. The dictatorship, suppression and corruption and the mismanagement of public affairs make the so called independence

an illusion.

Mosese is Principled: He says he cannot compromise his principles for anything including his own freedom. He even cannot allow his sister Regina to plead for his release and he is not even ready to participate in a play by prisoners since to him that is to “bend so low.”

Patriotic: It is evident that Mosese loves his country Kafira. He is very much angered by what is happening in Kafira. He criticizes the government even when it is risky to do so. He tells Jere “it was better while we waited. Now we have nothing to look forward to. We have killed our past and are busy killing our future ... Our children will never have such memories.”

Self-sacrificing:  Mosese`s going to prison is like a sacrifice he makes to change his country. Furthermore, he agrees to participate in the play in order to secure the freedom of six hundred prisoners. As Jere puts it this was “sacrificing their dignity in order to rescue others from inevitable misery.” He later on becomes instrumental in freeing the country when he takes part in overthrowing the government.

Inquisitive: A slight piece of information prompts him to probe further to get more details. He asks Jere about the book he means and when he learns that it is a Bible, he asks Jere if he is that religious. He then probes Jere`s profession, then gets to know his background due to his quizzical nature.

Intelligent: he clearly reads the situation in the cell and observes that, it is prudent to be silent but quickly adds that this though does not mean one is dump.

Role of Mosese in the plot development
Mosese represents the educated elite who sacrifice themselves to improve their countries. Throughout the play Mosese is seen to be having a dream of a better Kafira. He plays a big role in the development of the theme of patriotism. Imbuga uses him to tell readers that a true patriot should be ready to use their education and intellect to change their country for the better.

Boss                  
Head of state of Kafira:  Boss is the head of state of Kafira. He is the absolute authority in Kafira. He is also cousin to Mulili. He was a military officer before taking power through a coup.

Ruthless/oppressive/egocentric: He orders officials to use force in trying to stop dissents in Kafira. This results in the killing of Adika, Nina, Doga and Kabito. Some of the people who try to oppose the regime of Boss also end up in prison e.g., Mosese and Jere. Furthermore, he rules for too long because of his egoistic mind while creating pain and suffering to his subjects.

Weak ruler: He is portrayed as a weak ruler who is easily influenced by his advisors. He is responsible for most of Kafira’s problems either directly or indirectly. At the end of the play Boss is overthrown.

He is dictatorial/ authoritarian/ intolerant:  He leads Kafira with an iron fist and he is not ready to seek other people’s opinions. A few years of his rule has seen many imprisoned for expressing their opinion and others assassinated for the same. Boss is feared by his subjects and his advisors alike. This fear is expressed by Tumbo when preparing for the rehearsal. He extends this intolerance even to his family. When his wife protests that he had tried to have sex with Regina, Boss locks her up.

Boss is corrupt: Boss has engages in various forms of corrupt activities including nepotism, abuse of office and stealing of public property. Boss came to power through a military coup. He thereafter uses the military and police to preserve his power therefore denying citizens of Kafira the chance to elect their leaders.

Nepotistic: He has surrounded himself with relatives and cronies who are holding powerful government offices which they are not qualified to hold. Tumbo and Mulili are good examples. He allocates public property to his cronies in order to earn their loyalty. In Mulili’s case he is allocated land for being loyal to Boss. Boss uses the powers of his offices to benefit and protect himself. He detains and eliminates people who differ with his opinions, for instance Mosese and Adika.

Unpatriotic: It is evident that Boss does not have Kafira’s best interest at heart. Instead he is concerned with enriching himself and protecting his power. Life in Kafira has deteriorated thanks to his bad leadership which has bred corruption. He has swamped Kafira with expatriates at the expense of citizens of Kafira. He also hides money in foreign banks. Mulili reveals that Boss is hiding property in foreign nations which may have been acquired illegally by Boss.

He is immoral/ promiscuous: He tries to have sex with Regina in exchange for her brother’s freedom. When Regina refuses Boss tries to rape her. Tumbo reveals that Boss has a weakness for women. This is more evident when he attempts to rape Regina.

Role of Boss in the development of the plot

Boss represents poor leadership and bad governance in Africa. He serves as an example of a dictator who, guided by his greed for power and wealth, ruins his country. The rife corruption and brutality of his regime teaches the audience the demerits of autocratic and military systems of government. The overthrowing of Boss’ government is a lesson to the reader that such governments have no place in the modern world.

Jere        
A soldier: He was initially a soldier before he fell out with Mulili and become a prisoner. He becomes instrumental in the coup that finally rids Kafira of Boss’ government.

He is brave/ courageous: Jere confronts Mulili fearlessly when they quarreled over whether the old couple should be allowed to carry on with their ceremony. When it is clear that they could not agree he shoots at Mulili yet he knows that he is Boss’ relative.

He understands: He easily understands the plight of Nina and Doga and argues with Mulili to let them have the ceremony.

He is rebellious: He refuses to affect the orders his is sent to carry out at Adika’s graveyard. Instead, he tries to let the ceremony go on. 

 Jere can also be described as: incorruptible, forgiving and intelligent.

Patriotic: Jere is described as patriotic. Because of his love for Kafira, while in prison, with Mosese, he accepted to participate in the play within the play that finally gave a final blow to the barbaric, brutal, and selfish regime of Boss. This, Jere believes will lead to freedom of people of Kafira, including the six hundred prisoners.

Victim of injustice: Jere is a victim of injustice and he fights for justice. He illustrates the theme of injustice. Though he was a soldier before serving the interest of the nation not of the regime, he was imprisoned unjustly on the orders and accusation of Mulili.

Self-sacrifice and commitment: Jere also illustrates the theme of sacrifice and commitment in the struggle for change. He stands for the rights of Doga and Nina even if he knows would cost him his freedom. In contrast to Mulili, Tumbo and Boss, Jere offers hope that an individual can be transformed from agent of oppression and evil into champions of goodness and human dignity.

Merciful: he refuses to kill Boss because he knows that Boss` death does not benefit Kafira. He does not want more bloodshed but only unity and development which is a culmination of everybody’s involvement.

Talkative: He talks a lot with Askari about the conditions in the prison cell and engages them in a hearty discussion and life before he got arrested. He tells Mosese a lot about himself even before getting to know whom he is talking to.

Secretive: Jere is secretive, reliable and dependable character. He keeps Mulili`s secrete of letting Mustafa escape from prison, something that Mulili would not have done to any other person.

Role of Jere in the plot
Jere plays an active role in liberating Kafira. He therefore represents resistance to corrupt and dictatorial regimes. He is an example of patriotic, incorruptible and courageous citizens who readily sacrifice themselves for the good of their nation.

Tumbo
Boss’ right hand: Tumbo is Boss’ right hand man -even though he is semi-literate. He carries out tasks for the leader of Kafira. This has earned him wealth, power and a bad reputation among citizens. He is Regina’s landlord and the chair of the committee in charge of the visiting head of state’s entertainment.

He is selfish: Being a beneficiary of Boss’ corrupt regime Tumbo ignores the plight of other citizens of Kafira who bear the brunt of their government’s corruption and brutality. Instead of using his powerful position to give Boss advice that might improve his leadership style, he busies himself with accumulating wealth through corruption.

Materialistic: He confesses to Jusper that he sold his university scholarship.
He also tells Jusper that one should enrich himself first before he can try speaking for others. He says this in effort to discourage Jusper from protesting against the government and to defend his laxity to criticize the government.

Corrupt: He fraudulently awards Jusper the contract to write the play and splits the money between them. He does not conduct the play writing competition as was required but plans to publish a report saying that it was held and Jusper won.

Unpatriotic: He advises Regina to go see Boss about her brother’s release knowing well what might happen there. This makes Tumbo the kind of man that can readily sacrifice their friends just to preserve their power.

He is timid/ fearful: Tumbo is careful to preserve his life, power and the good relation he has with Boss. He never questions Boss’ decision in fear of consequences. During the committee meeting he sides with Mulili to avoid confrontation with him. Even though he knew that Boss has “a weakness for women” he encourages Regina to go see him. She escapes both rape and death narrowly when she jumps out of the window.

Vigilant:  he chairs the entertainment committee and tries to put down the quarrels between Kabito and Mulili. Tumbo diplomatically orders a short break to try and cool tempers. When the meeting resumes, he apologizes to Jusper for the attempted rape of Regina but warns him to continue with the play or risk being treated badly.

He is gullible: He is easily deceived into believing that Jasper is Regina`s cousin; he even adds that Jasper and Regina look quite alike.

He is a liar: He lies to Regina that he had to let someone else do the play writing for the play meant to entertain the visiting head of state so that someone else also benefits. The truth is that he has no clue about writing plays.

Ignorant and unintelligent: His interaction with Jusper in Act 1, scene III testifies to this. His silly and feeble response to Jusper while talking about the students’ riot reveals his ignorance about things. He does not even know who Soyinka is.

Kind and understanding: Positively, he is kind and understanding. He tries to help Regina secure the release of her brother Mosese from prison. This is also depicted in the way he is visibly shaken by Kabito`s death. He is not inhuman as most of the other representatives of the regime.

Generous: Tumbo is also depicted as a generous character. He offers to buy drinks for Regina, Jusper and himself. When Jusper gives back the balance, he refuses it and tells Jusper to keep it and use it to help himself.

Role of Tumbo in the development of the play

Tumbo represents the corrupt, self-serving and unpatriotic leaders who use their power to amass wealth while neglecting their duty. He exemplifies people who blindly carry out orders of their superiors without questioning their rationale or daring to advise their superiors against bad decisions.
He also serves as an example of an incompetent, inefficient official who got power through dubious means and is therefore eager to please his master by doing whatever he is ordered without question.

He is also important to the plot in the contribution he makes to the success of Jasper’s play and adds to our understanding of Boss` character.

Doga and Nina

Couples and Parents: They are husband and wife. Parents to Adika (the absentee character) and Jusper.

Conservative traditionalists: They are conservative traditionalists. They insist that the cultural practice of the shaving ceremony of their son must go on. This instance brings them problems with the regime, causing their death.

Disappointed: They lived in disappointment for the loss of their son and no hope at all that things can ever get better in Kafira.

Determined: They are determined especially Doga to go on with the traditional ceremony despite the fact that the regime in Kafira is against it.

Religious: The couples are religious; they pray to God to make the shaving ceremony a success because Jusper could interfere with it.

Nina is daring:  She dares the heartless Mulili to stop the ceremony if he wants to see her nakedness. This however has no effect on the mindless Mulili.

MAJOR THEMES AND IDEAS IN THE PLAY BETRAYAL IN THE CITY

A theme is an idea that the playwright puts across. There are major and minor themes. A theme is not stated but the reader is supposed to infer from the characters, their actions and words, plot and the setting.

A)  Betrayal 
To betray is to be disloyal to someone, one's country, organization or ideology by acting in the interest of the enemy. The play is full of betrayals which range from cultural, interpersonal to political infidelity.

The people who are hell bent on displaying betrayal to the local culture are despicable/shameful state agents such as Mulili. Just before the ceremony begins, Jere and Mulili come up with a signed government order stopping the ceremony. This ceremony is cancelled in the interest of peace.

Boss faces betrayal on the face in the play within a play. The play is incidentally titled "Betrayal in the City". Mulili clearly tells everybody who cares to listen that Boss has never been his cousin or he could be only a distant cousin. He says that there is absolutely no reason why Boss should not be killed. He then proceeds to enumerate Boss' ills such as high handedness, spoiling the economy, ruling for too long and killing Kabito.

                                                                                      

 Mulili betrays Kabito. He says that Kabito has complained that Boss has robbed him of the milk tender, he has ruined the economy, he hides millions in foreign countries and that he tried to get Regina by force. By having Kabito killed, he betrays both men. First, he betrays Boss' trust as a trusted aide and secondly he betrays Kabito, a hardworking and loyal government official.

Mulili betrays his colleague, Jere who gets arrested because he opposed the former's brutality towards Doga and Nina. Apart from his name calling and callous nature, he gets Jere into trouble when all he wanted was to assist the old couple.

Tumbo betrays Regina's trust in him when he fails to tell her the exact intentions of Boss during her appointment to petition for Mosese's release. Her host (Boss) becomes so amorous that Regina is forced to jump out of a ten foot high window to escape. Boss' wife has had her trust in her husband betrayed when he intends to bring in another woman. (Regina) into their own house. Her complaints cause her to be bundled into a cell like a common criminal. Her feeling of betrayal must be overwhelming.

 Boss' regime despite being in place to serve the public well, betrays the very public who have given them the very powers. They instead use power to perpetuate themselves. Boss uses state resources to reward cronies with lucrative tenders and other goodies for helping him have stranglehold on power. Persecution of peasants like Doga and Nina, murder of citizens like Adika and Kabito is the betrayal of the public who expect to be protected by the government.

The government has betrayed the people for not improving their welfare. The gravity of the government's betrayal to the people is succinctly/briefly captured by Mosese when he says: "For years we waited for the kingdom of heaven, then they said it had come. “Our kingdom had come at last but no it was all an illusion."(Pg27-28)

It can be argued that the act of Regina trying to plead with the authorities to have Mosese released from jail is tantamount to betraying Mosese. This is because Mosese has made it clear that he cannot stand that kind of betrayal:"I saw betrayal in her eyes. Stood in front of me and said he wanted to go and plead for my release." 

B) Corruption
Corruption is a vice that gradually gnaws at the society leading to suffering amongst the citizens. The theme of corruption manifests itself in different forms in the play. These forms include:

Nepotism, influence peddling, favoritism, culture of kickback, civil servants stealing from the public coffers and tribalism. We are told that Boss himself is a weak and corrupt ruler who uses his corrupt cronies to rule. To effectively use them, he rewards them with bribes.

 For instance, Mulili has been promised many acres of land and exotic cattle. In addition, Boss himself is alleged to have stashed lots of money in foreign countries. Boss puts Mulili, a cousin, in a senior government position so that he can inform him of every intricate detail in Kafira. The man is illiterate and a non-performer who is determined to amass wealth for himself. He is inconsiderate and will do anything to earn acres of farmland and cattle.

On one occasion, he denies Doga and Nina the chance to carry out the shaving ceremony according to tradition despite their loss. On the contrary, he had helped Mustafa, a criminal to escape across the border but pretends to strictly abide by the rule of law as long as there is nothing he stands to lose.

Tumbo fails to conduct a playwriting competition and instead chooses Jusper and pays him only a third of the money. He pockets the rest claiming that it is for setting records straight. He also plans to extend the entertainment committee's session in order to earn more sitting allowance.

Jusper is a frustrated student who like all the rest, has no hope of finding a job in Kafira since most of them are taken by expatriates. He tells Tumbo that during the holiday he would sit in the house and vegetate since the state regards the youths as neither children nor adults but fence sitters. Boss' intention is to use expatriates as an opportunity to gain more foreign aid.’

 Corruption among the public officials is seen in the meeting of the entertainment committee in Act Two Scene One where we see everyone is concerned first and foremost about the size of potato (take home pay) and not the services they will offer to the public. The talk that dominates the meeting session is about money and tender.

 Tumbo's advice to Jusper is, "Learn to fight for yourself first and then when your presence is felt, you can risk shouting for others". This casts him as a believer of capitalism ethos where one ought to make as much money through any means possible.

Virtually, everyone is corrupt and the few who are clean like Mosese are hounded out. Corrupt methods have to be used to accomplish this. In the case of Mosese, drugs had to be planted on him so as to nail him. Although corruption is perpetuated by most people, Mulili is clearly the leading perpetrator and the face of corruption in Boss' regime. It is not surprising that he is the one who

eventually gets killed while Boss is spared.

C) Bad Governance 

The way Boss runs his government defies logic and reason. The government does not defend the rule of law but issues decrees from the palace and passes them down through cronies. Tumbo's remark at the end of the play puts what ails the state in plain terms:" I am truly sorry, but I am not entirely to blame; I was trained but given the wrong job. (Pg. 74).This remark points an accusing finger at the appointing authority. The buck as it were, rests with Boss. The likes of Mulili should not be in government leave alone give anybody advice. 

The fact that Boss relies on the likes of Mulili, Tumbo, Kabito and Nicodemo to render good and sustainable opinion and advice to the government tells the extent of the rot in this system. Mulili is barely coherent and there are a lot of inconsistencies in his utterances. He is a pathological liar, a cheat and a fraud who any right thinking leader should distance himself from.

Ordinary people cannot carry out their normal ceremonies without government interference. Note that Doga and Nina, two innocent and bereaved citizens cannot carry out a simple ceremony for their dead son. The government sends two soldiers, Jere and Mulili to bar them from doing so. They are even murdered as a result.

 The government restricts freedom of expression. For example, the rioting students of Kafira University are stopped violently by having their leaders shot dead. During the burial of the student leader, many restrictions are put in place. The service must not take more than ten minutes, the coffin should not be carried by students and weeping in public is illegal for the academic staff. (pg. 25)

The development agenda is crowded with mediocrity as evidenced by the fact that Boss' change of Christian name is agenda item number one in the development plan. Apparently, mediocrity is celebrated in Kafira:" Blows were exchanged in the planning committee over whether the changing of names should be item number one or three in the development plan".(pg24).

Boss presides over a murderous regime that abets/supports extrajudicial killings of its citizens. Adika is murdered in cold blood just as it happens to Kabito after his bitter fall out with Mulili, Boss' most trusted advisor. We are told that it is Boss who authorized his execution over mere allegations.

These gross crimes against citizens together with police brutality as seen where Regina was beaten up by police and Jusper was driven to near madness in prison (due to torture) casts this regime in bad light as that presides over the rule of the jungle. 

D) Hopelessness/Disillusionment 

A disillusioned person has lost trust and is disappointed because the person they admired or the idea they believed to be good and true now seems without value. Throughout the play, one cannot fail to discern the specter of disillusionment that seems to haunt Kafira.

Doga and Nina have lost hope in life after their son; Adika is shot dead during the university riots. Their other son, Jusper seems to have lost his mind after his brother's death and is currently considered as good as 'dead'. Nina concludes that the authorities have robbed them of all they had and blinded them.

The collective sense of disillusionment is captured by Mosese when he says, "It was better while we waited. Now we have nothing to look forward to. We have killed our past and are busy killing the future". (pg. 28) He no longer believes in the Biblical promise of the poor inheriting the kingdom of heaven. It is all an illusion.

 Jere says that he has lost his faith in humanity and his carrying of the Bible to prison was to see if it might restore his faith in humanity. "Then, I said to myself, if they take you in, carry a Bible with youth might restore your faith in humanity."(pg23). He only got some fulfillment out of acting the Pilate's story. Jere argues with Askari over the issue of freedom. He tells him that the outside of his cell may as well be the inside of another which implies that there is no freedom in Kafira and even those who think they are free or not. 

It is unfortunate for Kafira that they risk having no future given that even the youth are not spared this disillusionment. Jusper says, "The younger generation can only be spectators at most. We'll never have the opportunity to join in that nation building."(pg41).When Regina tries to stop Jusper from wearing the red gown, which she says makes him look dangerous; he tells her that she has lost her fighting spirit like everyone else in the streets. This paints a general feeling of disillusionment that is in Kafira.

When the students were marching in the streets, we are told that even the beggars leaning on street walls shouted at them that they were wasting time. After Kabito's murder, Tumbo and Nicodemo realize that their tenures as government officials hang in the balance. Tumbo says, "We have no choice, like caged animals, we move but only inside the cage."(pg62). He says the elimination of citizens has become so rampant that one is

not so sure of seeing the next day.

E) Hypocrisy 

There are a number of hypocritical characters in the play. For instance, Boss' treatment of his wife Mercedes is extremely hypocritical. When his wife learns that he has brought Regina into the house she complains. He takes offence and locks her up in a palace cell. He also claims that she has been rude to him yet he does not consider the fact that she feels betrayed by his actions.

Boss claims to understand truth and justice while in fact he least do. He alleges that the rioting students and the dissenting lecturers have no idea what truth and justice is all about. This hypocrisy is self-serving in the sense that he intends to suppress their freedom of expression to create an opportunity to gain from foreign governments. 

Tumbo pretends to be doing Regina a favor by introducing her to Boss yet he knows his (Boss) ridiculous weakness for woman. When she gets into trouble and jumps out of a ten-foot high window, he belatedly says he will apologize to her. He pretends to be sorry for Regina while all

along he had known what Boss was up to.

F) Conflict 

Conflict can be defined as the state of disharmony or a clash between incompatible persons, ideas or interests.

At the beginning of the play, we see the conflict that arises depressing the soldiers, Jere and Mulili sent by the authorities to guard the grave and the old couple. Just when the old couple is set to begin the shaving ceremony for their dead son, the two soldiers enter to stop the ceremony in the interest of peace. While Jere is of the opinion that the old couple should be allowed to continue with their ceremony, Mulili cannot hear any of that since his future depends on his executing the orders given to him. Finally it culminates in Jere shooting Mulili (pg15).

There is clash between the people's culture on one hand and the imposed system of governance which does not take cognizance of traditions as it enforces its laws.

Another conflict can be seen between Kabito and Mulili during the entertainment committee's meeting. Kabito is angry that Mulili bullied his way into getting the university milk tender which apparently Kabito was keen on getting. The two cannot see each other eye to eye and thus at the meeting their differences play out openly degenerating into names calling and swear words. Kabito says, "If he doesn't get me first I will get him."(pg52).In addition to that, Kabito tells of Mulili to his

face, “You are the people who choke Kafira."(pg56).

G) Greed/Materialism

A number of characters exhibit excessive greed for money and material things. This unbridled appetite for wealth unfortunately breeds a tendency for corruption amongst public officials. The officials in the entertainment committee led by Nicodemo and Kabito are clearly greedy for money. They are concerned with the size of the potato more than anything else. Kabito says, "The tree climber begins from the bottom, not the top. May we not be told our terms of services or are being good citizens?"(pg53).

On the other hand, Nicodemo wants to know the "size of potato per hour", they will get. Such sentiments do not hide the greed for money these officials have. Greed can also be discerned where Tumbo says he will be left with a huge chunk of money meant for play writing competition while paying the playwright only a third of the entire amount.

Boss talks glowingly about his blocks of buildings which he owned after returning from abroad two years ago. He tells Regina, "So you see, a block like this one cost me no less than one hundred and fifty thousand shillings."(pg46).This portrays him as a person with a classic materialistic mind which exalts material things and their price tags.

 Greed makes Mulili such a ruthless fellow while executing the government's order to keep law and order. He cannot withstand anything distracting him from executing the orders for his eyes are trained on the 'prize' which is a big farm and exotic cattle. "I doesn't want to lost that farm. Boss promises many acres of farm and grade cattle (pg13).This is even if it means harassing poor peasants the age of

his parents.

H) The Role of Students and Educated Elite in Society 
The students are at the vanguard of the struggle to liberate Kafira from the yoke of dictatorship. We are told that Adika died "for the truth". His only crime was to ask if Kafira was in the right train. His death sows the seeds of determination in students such as Jusper to continue fighting for a just Kafira.

The death sees Adika elevated from being just a mere hero to a martyr who sacrificed his life for the liberation of Kafira. They provide intellectual resources to the liberation of the country. The success of the bloodless coup that topples Boss' regime at the end of the play is the handiwork of Jusper's strategy which he formulates and executes with remarkable precision. Mosese is the patron of the struggle and his role in the liberation struggle cannot be belittled.

One does not necessarily have to be at the forefront so as to say they participated. He is a classic example of intellectuals in the society. They do not want to participate in politics presumably because it is a dirty game. The otherwise noble calling of politics is left to the dumbest and illiterates like Mulili.

The message that Imbuga seems to convey about the role of intellectuals and students as can be seen from the part each one plays is that they can collaborate for a purpose. They ought not to shy away from politics but they should participate towards bringing the desired changes in their country. The intellectual component is required in politics. Its absence has only been an unmitigated disaster with illiterates taking charge of government and spreading terror on innocent citizens.

I) Fear/Suspicion 

The people of Kafira live in great fear, they lack freedom of expression. They cannot understand why the likes of Jusper, Adika and Mosese talk too much and put themselves in unnecessary trouble. Regina warns Jusper against talking too much. She does not want him to end up dead like Adika or in prison like Mosese.

Jusper's red academic gown is a source of constant fear for Regina. Askari warns Jere and Mosese that silence is all they need to stay out of trouble. Suspicion is created when prisoners either remain silent or talk too much.

 Tumbo comments that until people like Mulili are out of government, it would be dangerous to seem to do things differently in Kafira. When Nicodemo suggests that Kabito should report the issue of losing his tender, Kabito remarks that reporting Mulili to Boss is tantamount to digging one's own grave.

When Kabito questions Mulili presence on the committee, Tumbo says that Kabito should know better than that and in any case, the question was not on the agenda. When Nicodemo comments that they are being too formal, Kabito says:" I agree with Nicodemo, let's drop the formality until Mulili comes."(pg53).

SOME REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Explain the appropriateness of the title “Betrayal in the City” to the play
2. Who betrays who in the play “Betrayal in the City”
3. Expound on the theme of betrayal in the play ‘Betrayal in the City”
4. What lessons do you learn from the events and characters in the play “Betrayal in the City”
5. Of what relevance is the play “Betrayal in the City” to your country.
6. Who is to blame for the fall of Kafira in the play “Betrayal in the city”
7.  Without Adika, there would be no play; elucidate.
8. Of what importance is the university students` demonstration to what happens in the play.
9. How does Tumbo contribute to Boss` downfall in the play “Betrayal in the City”?
10.  Describe the character of Tumbo and how he contributes to the development of the play.
11. Expound on the theme of corruption in the play “Betrayal in the City”
12. Describe the character of Jusper and show how Adika contributes to the development of his character in the play.